Overview

Derived from amino acids, creatine is a naturally occurring compound that plays a key role in the body’s ability to produce energy. Roughly 95% of the body’s creatine is stored in skeletal muscle tissue, with a higher concentration in fast-twitch, type II muscle fibers. Within the muscles, creatine exists in two main forms—approximately two-thirds are stored as phosphocreatine (PCr), while the remaining one-third remains as free creatine.

PCr serves as a rapid energy reserve, helping regenerate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), especially during bursts of physical activity. Creatine is produced endogenously at an amount of about 1 g per day, primarily in the liver, kidneys, and to a lesser extent, the pancreas. The remainder of the creatine available to the body is obtained through the diet, averaging about 1 g per day in an omnivore diet. Dietary sources of creatine include animal-based proteins, notably red meat and fish. Approximately 1–2% of intramuscular creatine is broken down and excreted through the urine each day. Supplemental creatine has been shown to enhance athletic performance and recovery, promote longevity and healthy aging, and support optimal cognitive function.

Athletic Performance and Recovery†

Creatine monohydrate is one of the most extensively studied ergogenic aids in sports nutrition. Supplemental creatine increases intramuscular PCr stores, enhancing the cellular capacity to rapidly regenerate ATP during physical exertion. It may also exert osmotic effects that promote cell hydration and signaling, and it enables greater training volume and intensity, which in turn stimulates muscle protein synthesis and hypertrophy.

The result is a well-documented improvement in anaerobic performance—creatine consistently increases maximal strength and power output, muscular work capacity, and lean body mass gains during resistance training. Creatine supplementation combined with resistance training has been shown to increase lean body mass in adults of any age.

In addition to its benefits with muscle performance, creatine supplementation may enhance exercise recovery and reduce muscle lysis secondary to exercise. Studies report that creatine users experience less muscle enzyme release and soreness after intense exercise, indicating reduced muscle fiber breakdown.

Cognitive Function†

Creatine has also been studied for its neuroprotective and nootropic potential. Neurons and glial cells use PCr to maintain energy homeostasis, especially during cognitively demanding situations or metabolic stress. Research shows creatine can stabilize mitochondrial function, reduce reactive oxygen species, and prevent ATP depletion.

A growing body of evidence suggests that oral creatine supplementation can improve working memory (short-term memory) and reasoning tasks. These cognitive benefits highlight creatine’s potential applications beyond athletic performance, supporting both brain health and healthy aging.